Overweight and obesity in children and adolescents: The South African problem
Keywords:
BMI, overweight, obesity, children, adolescents
Abstract
Overweight and obesity in children and adolescents are on the increase worldwide.Overweight and obesity increase the risk for the development of non-communicable diseases during childhood and adolescence, and predispose the individual to the development of overweight, obesity,ardiovascular disease, and metabolic and other disorders in adulthood.In Africa the number of overweight or obese children has doubled since 1990. In South Africa,overweight and obesity in children and adolescents are on the increase, but the prevalencevaries with age, gender and population group. These differences are important when intervention programmes and policies are considered. South Africa faces a double burden of disease where undernutrition and overweight or obesity are found in the same populations, in the same households and even in the same children. Malnutrition is a major contributor to the double burden of disease in South African children and adolescents.References
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2. De Onis M, Lobstein T. Defining obesity risk status in the general childhood population: Which cut-offs should we use? Int J Pediatr Obes. 2010;5:458–460. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/17477161003615583, PMid:20233144
3. Cole TJ, Bellizzi MC, Flegal KM, Dietz WH. Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: International survey. BMJ.2000;320;1240–1243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7244.1240, PMid:10797032, PMCid:27365
4. De Onis M, Garza C, Onyango AW, Borghi E. Comparison of the WHO child growth standards and the CDC 2000 growth charts. J Nutr. 2007;137:144–148. PMid:17182816
5. De Onis M, Blössner M, Borghi E. Global prevalence and trends of overweight and obesity among preschool children. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92:1257–1264.
6. De Onis M, Blössner M. Prevalence and trends of overweight among preschool children in developing countries. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72:1032–1039.
7. Boutayeb A, Boutayeb S. The burden of non-communicable diseases in developing countries. Int J Equity Health. 2005;4:2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-4-2, PMid:15651987, PMCid:546417
8. Prentice AM. The emerging epidemic of obesity in developing countries. J Infect Dis. 2005;35(1):93–99.
9. Steinberger J, Daniels SR. Obesity, insulin resistance, diabetes and cardiovascular risk in children. Circulation. 2003;107:1448–1453. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000060923.07573. F2, PMid:12642369
10. Freedman DS, Dietz WH, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS. The relation of overweight to cardiovascular risk factors among children and adolescents: The Bogalusa Heart study. Pediatrics. 1999;103:1175–1182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.103.6.1175, PMid:10353925
11. Lee WWR. An overview of pediatric obesity. Pediatr Diab. 2007;8(Suppl.9):76–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5448.2007.00337.x, PMid:17991136
12. Hannon TS, Rao G, Arslanian SA. Childhood obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pediatrics. 2005;116(2):473–480. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-2536, , PMid:16061606
13. He Q, Karlsberg J. BMI in childhood and its association with height gain, timing of puberty, and final height. Pediatr Res. 2001;49(2):244–251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1203/00006450-200102000-00019
14. Reilly JJ, Kelly J. Long-term impact of overweight and obesity in childhood and adolescence on morbidity and premature mortality in adulthood: Systematic review. Int J Obes. 2010;35:891–898. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2010.222
15. Jeffreys M, Smith G, Martin R, Frankel S, Gunnell D. Childhood body mass index and later cancer risk: A 50-year follow-up of the Boyd Orr study. Int J Cancer. 2004;112:348–351. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.20423, PMid:15352051
16. Mathur P, Das MK, Arora NK. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and childhood obesity. Indian J Pediatr. 2007;74(4):401–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12098-007-0068-0
17. Monyeki MA, Pienaar AE, Mamabolo RL, Temane M. Effect of obesity on physical self-concept of urban school children living in Potchefstroom, South Africa: Health. AJPHERD. 2009;15(1):1–14.
18. Israel AC, Ivanova MY. Global and dimensional self-esteem in preadolescent and early adolescent children who are overweight: Age and gender differences. Int J Eat Disord. 2002;31(4):424–429. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eat.10048, PMid:11948647
19. Doak CM, Visscher TLS, Renders CM, Seidel JC. The prevention of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents: A review of interventions and programmes. Obes Rev. 2006;7:111–136. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2006.00234.x, PMid:16436107
20. Truter L, Pienaar AE, Du Toit D. Relationships between overweight, obesity and physical fitness of nine-to-twelve-year-old South African children. SA Fam Pract. 2010;52(3):227–233.
21. Armstrong MEG, Lambert MI, Sharwood KA, Lambert EV. Obesity and overweight in South African primary school children. The Health of the Nation Study. S Afr Med J. 2006;96(5):439–444. PMid:16751921
22. Reddy SP, Resnicow K, James S, Kambaran N, Omardien R, Mbewu AD. Underweight, overweight and obesity among South African adolescents: Results of the 2002 National Youth Risk Behaviour Survey. Public Health Nutr. 2008;12(2):203–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1368980008002656, PMid:18547451
23. Armstrong MEG, Lambert MI, Lambert EV. Secular trends in the prevalence of stunting, overweight and obesity among South African children (1994–2004). Eur J Clin Nutr. 2011;65:835–840. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2011.46, PMid:21505505
24. Puckree T, Naidoo P, Pillay P, Naidoo T. Underweight and overweight in primary school children in eThekwini district in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Afr J Prm Health Care Fam Med. 2011;3(1), Art. #203, 6 pages. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102.phcfm.v3i1.203
25. Kemp C, Pienaar AE, Schutte AE. The prevalence of hypertension and the relationship with body composition in Grade 1 learners in the North West Province of South Africa. S Afr J Sports Med. 2011;23(4):117–122.
26. Kimani-Murage EW, Kahn K, Pettifor JM, et al. The prevalence of stunting, overweight and obesity, and metabolic disease risk in rural South African children. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-158, PMid:20338024, PMCid:2853509
27. Reddy SP, James S, Sewpaul R, et al. Umthente Uhlaba Usamila – The South African Youth Risk Behaviour Survey 2008. Cape Town: South African Medical Research Council; 2010.
28. Labadarios D, Swart R, Maunder EMW, et al. National Food Consumption Survey Fortification Baseline (NFCS-FB-I) South Africa, 2005. S Afr J Clin Nutr. 2008;21(2):245–300.
29. Smuts CM, Faber M, Schoeman SE, et al. Socio-demographic profiles and anthropometric status of 0- to 71-month-old children and their caregivers in rural districts of the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces of South Africa. S Afr J Clin Nutr. 2008;21(3):117–124.
30. Kruger R, Kruger HS, MacIntyre UE. The determinants of overweight and obesity among 10- to 15-year-old schoolchildren in the North West Province, South Africa – the THUSA BANA study. Public Health Nutr. 2006;9(3):351–358. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/PHN2006849, PMid:16684387
31. Mamabolo RL, Alberts M, Steyn NP, et al. Prevalence and determinants of stunting and overweight in 3-year-old Black South African children residing in the Central Region of Limpopo Province, South Africa. Public Health Nutr. 2005;8(5):501–508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/PHN2005786, PMid:17381956
32. Somers A. The prevalence of obesity amongst learners attending the schools in Belhar, Delft and Mfuleni in Cape Town, South Africa. Master’s dissertation in Biomedical Technology, Cape Town, Peninsula Technikon, 2004.
33. Mukuddem-Petersen J, Kruger HS. Association between stunting and overweight among 10–15-y-old children in the North West Province of South Africa: The THUSA BANA Study. Int J Obes. 2004;28:842–851. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0802586, PMid:14758345
34. Labadarios D, Steyn NP, Maunder EMW, et al. The National Food Consumption Survey (NFCS): South Africa, 1999. Public Health Nutr. 2005;8(5):533–543. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/PHN2005816
35. Steyn NP, Labadarios D, Maunder E, Nel J, Lombard C. Secondary anthropometric data analysis of the national food consumption survey in South Africa: The double burden. Nutrition. 2005;21:4–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2004.09.003, PMid:15661473
36. Cameron N, Getz B. Sex differences in the prevalence of obesity in rural African adolescents. Int J Obes.1997;21:775–782. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0800472, PMid:9376890
37. Monyeki KD, Van Lenthe FJ, Steyn NP. Obesity: Does it occur in African children in a rural community in South Africa? Int J Epidemiol. 1999;28:287–292. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/28.2.287, PMid:10342693
38. Jinabhai CC, Taylor M, Sullivan KR. Implications of the prevalence of stunting, overweight and obesity amongst South African primary school children: A possible nutritional transition? Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:358–365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601534, PMid:12571672
39. Department of Health (DOH). Anthropometric survey in primary schools in the RSA. Pretoria: DOH; 1994
40. Elrick HD, Samaras TT, Demas A. Missing link in the obesity epidemic. Nutr Res. 2002;22:1101–1123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5317(02)00422-0
41. Mvo Z, Dick J, Steyn K. Perceptions of overweight African women about acceptable body size of women and children. Curationis. 1999;22(2):27–31. PMid:11040616
42. Clark RA, Niccolai L, Kissinger PJ, Peterson Y, Bouvier V. Ethnic differences in body image attitudes and perceptions among women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Am Diet Assoc. 1999;99:735–737. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(99)00398-3
43. Wang Y, Popkin BM, Zhai F. The nutritional status and dietary pattern of Chinese adolescents 1991 and 1993. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998;52(12):908–916. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600664, PMid:9881886
44. Popkin BM, Richards MK, Monteiro C. Stunting is associated with overweight in children of four nations that are undergoing the nutrition transition. J Nutr. 1996;126:3009–3016. PMid:9001368
45. World Health Organization. Obesity and overweight [homepage on the Internet]. No date [updated 2011 Mar; cited 2012 Feb 15]. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/ http://www.who.int/mediacentre/
46. Asayama K, Oguni T, Hayashi K, et al. Critical values for the index of body fat distribution based on waist and hip circumference and stature in obese girls. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000;24:1026–1031. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801355, PMid:10951542
47. Walker SP, Gaskin PS, Powell CA, Bennet FI. The effects of birth weight and postnatal linear growth retardation on body max index, fatness and fat distribution in mid and late childhood. Public Health Nutr. 2002;5:391–396. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/PHN2002275, PMid:12003649
48. Florencio TM, Ferreira HS, Da Franca AP, Cavalcante JC, Sawaya AL. Obesity and undernutrition in a very-low-income population in the city of Maceio in north-eastern Brazil. Br J Nutr. 2001;86:277–284. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/BJN2001396
49. Hoffman DJ, Sawaya AL, Verreschi I, Tucker KL, Roberts SB. Why are nutritionally stunted children at increased risk for obesity? Studies of metabolic rate and fat oxidation in shantytown children from Sao Palao, Brazil. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72:702–707. PMid:10966887
50. Sawaya AL, Grillo LLP, Verreschi I, Da Silva AC, Roberts SB. Mild stunting is associated with higher susceptibility to the effects of high fat diets: Studies in a shantytown population of Sao Paolo, Brazil. J Nutr. 1998;128(Suppl.2):415S–420S. PMid:9478039 .
51. Li Y, Zhai F, Yang X, et al. Determinants of childhood overweight and obesity in China. Br J Nutr. 2007;97(1):210–215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007114507280559, PMid:17217578
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Published
2012-05-10
Section
Review Articles