Understanding pathogen transmission dynamics in waterbird communities: At what scale should interactions be studied?
Keywords:
avian influenza, species association, disease transmission, social network analysis, wild birds, scale
Abstract
Pathogen transmission in animal populations is contingent on interactions between and within species. Often standard ornithological data (e.g. total counts at a wetland) are the only data available for assessing the risks of avian pathogen transmission. In this paper we ask whether these data can be used to infer fine-scale transmission patterns. We tested for non-randomness in waterbird assemblages and explored waterbird interactions using social network analysis. Certain network parameter values were then compared to a data set on avian influenza prevalence in southern Africa. Our results showed that species associations were strongly non-random, implying that most standard ornithological data sets would not provide adequate information on which to base models of pathogen spread. In both aquatic and terrestrial networks, all species regularly associated closely with other network members. The spread of pathogens through the community could thus be rapid. Network analysis together with detailed, fine-scale observations offers a promising avenue for further research and management-oriented applications.References
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2. Taylor PB, Navarro RA, Wren-Sargent M, Harrison JA, Kieswetter SL. TOTAL CWAC report: Coordinated water bird counts in South Africa, 1992–97. Cape Town: Avian Demography Unit; 1999.
3. Slemons RD, Easterday BC. Virus replication in the digestive tract of ducks exposed by aerosol to type-A influenza. Avian Dis. 1978;22:367–377. doi:10.2307/1589291, PMid:358960
4. Hinshaw VS, Webster RG, Turner, B. Water-borne transmission of influenza A viruses? Intervirology. 1979;11:66–68. doi:10.1159/000149014, PMid:429143
5. Kida H, Yanagawa R, Matsuoka Y. Duck influenza lacking evidence of disease signs and immune response. Infect Immun. 1980;30:547–553. PMid:7439994, PMid:551346
6. Scientific report on migratory birds and their possible role in the spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza. Annex to The EFSA Journal. 2006;357:1–46.
7. Brown JD, Stallknecht DE, Beck JR, Suarez DL, Swayne DE. Susceptibility of North American ducks and gulls to H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Emerg Infect Diseases. 2006;12:1663–1670. PMid:17283615
8. Webster RG, Bean WJ, Gorman OT, Chamber TM, Kawaoka Y. Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. Microbiol Rev. 1992; 56:152–179. PMid:1579108, PMid:372859
9. Tracey JP, Woods R, Roshier D, West P, Saunders GR. The role of wild birds in the transmission of avian influenza for Australia: An ecological perspective. Emu. 2004;104:109–124. doi:10.1071/MU04017
10. Gilchrist P. Involvement of free-flying wild birds in the spread of the viruses of avian influenza, Newcastle disease and infectious bursal disease from poultry products to commercial poultry. World’s Poult Sci J. 2005;61:198–214. doi:10.1079/WPS200451
11. Alexander DJ. A review of avian influenza in different bird species. Vet Microbiol. 2000;74:3–13. doi:10.1016/S0378-1135(00)00160-7
12. Delogu M, De Marco MA, Donatelli I, Campitelli L, Catelli E. Ecological aspects of influenza A virus circulation in wild birds of the western Palearctic. Vet Res Comm. 2003;27:101–106. doi:10.1023/B:VERC.0000014125.49371.14, PMid:14535376
13. Stallknecht DE. Ecology and epidemiology of avian influenza viruses in wild bird populations: Waterfowl, shorebirds, pelicans, cormorants, etc. Avian Dis. 1997;47:61–69.
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15. McCune B, Grace JB. Analysis of ecological communities. Gleneden Beach: MjM Software Design; 2002.
16. Legendre P. Comparison of permutation methods for the partial correlation and partial Mantel tests. J Statist Comput Simul. 2000;67:37–73. doi:10.1080/00949650008812035
17. McCune B, Mefford MJ. PC-ORD multivariate analysis of ecological data. Version 4.34. Gleneden Beach: MjM Software Design; 1999.
18. Borgatti SP, Everett MG, Freeman LC. UCINET 6 for Windows: Software for social network analysis. Version 6.138. Harvard: Analytic Technologies; 2002.
19. Borgatti SP. NetDraw: Graph visualisation software. Version 2.055. Harvard: Analytic Technologies; 2002.
20. Hanneman RA, Riddle M. Introduction to social network methods [homepage on the Internet]. c2005 [cited 2007 Jan 10]. Available from: http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~hanneman/nettext/
21. Cumming G, Caron A, Abolnik C, et al. The ecology of influenza A viruses in wild birds in southern Africa. EcoHealth. In press 2010. doi:10.1007/s10393-011-0684-z
22. Dawson R. Marsh sandpipers (Tringa stagnatilis) associating with feeding avocets (Recurvirostra avosetta) and other species. Brit Birds. 1975;68:294–295.
23. Pettet A. Marsh sandpipers (Tringa stagnatilis) associating with feeding teal (Anas crecca). Brit Birds. 1975;68:295.
24. Lewis AD. Two commensal feeding associations observed in Kenya. Scopus. 1989;12:102–103.
25. Hockey PAR, Dean WRJ, Ryan PG, editors. Roberts – Birds of southern Africa. 7th ed. Cape Town: The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund; 2005.
26. Reynolds JF. Feeding association between marsh sandpiper and Hottentot teal. East Afr Nat Hist Soc Bull. 1972:189.
27. Pfitzer S, Verwoerd DJ, Gerdes GH, et al. Newcastle disease and avian influenza A virus in wild waterfowl in South Africa. Avian Dis. 2000;44:655–660. doi:10.2307/1593107, PMid:11007015
28. Sinclair M, Brückner GK, Kotze JJ. Avian influenza in ostriches: Epidemiological investigation in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. Veterinaria Italiana. 2006;42:5–12.